Volume 25, Issue 97 (7-2025)
refahj 2025, 25(97): 285-314 |
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gholami S, Modiri A, Tayebi A. (2025). The Right to the City in Iran's Media Discourse: A Tool for Awareness or Social Control?. refahj. 25(97), : 10 doi:10.32598/refahj.25.97.4625.1
URL: http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-4411-en.html
URL: http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-4411-en.html
Keywords: critical discourse analysis, media discourse, Right to the city, social control, social justice.
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Extended Abstract
Introduction
The rapid urbanization of recent decades has introduced new challenges in citizenship rights and urban management. One key concept addressing these challenges is the “Right to the City,” first introduced by Henri Lefebvre in the 1960s. This discourse redefines the relationship between citizens, urban spaces, and power structures, emphasizing equal access to urban resources and active participation in decision-making. The concept asserts that cities should be shaped according to the needs and aspirations of all inhabitants rather than the interests of a privileged few.
In Iran, the media play a dual role in representing this discourse, acting either as a tool for public awareness or as an instrument of social control. This study investigates how Iranian media portray the ‘Right to the City’ and identifies two dominant functions in their discourse: empowering citizens and reinforcing state control.
Method
Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework is employed in this study to analyzing 182 texts from official media and social networks (2001–2021) across three levels:
Textual Analysis: An examination of linguistic and structural features, such as word choice and syntax, to understand how media shapes perceptions of the “Right to the City.”
Discursive Process Analysis: Investigates how discourses are produced, distributed, and consumed, emphasizing power relations between media producers and audiences.
Social Context Analysis: Explores how political, social, and economic conditions influence media representations and their broader societal implications.
Findings
Textual Analysis
Findings reveal a stark contrast between official and independent media. Official media employ restrictive vocabulary emphasizing “public order” and “social security,” reinforcing narratives of control. Terms such as “security measures” and “law enforcement” frequently frame urban protests as threats to stability.
Conversely, independent media and social networks adopt justice-oriented and participatory language, highlighting terms like “social justice,” “citizens’ rights,” and “public participation.” They frame urban development as a matter of justice rather than solely a technical or managerial issue, advocating for equitable access to urban spaces.
Discursive Process Analysis
Social media exert a critical influence in amplifying citizen voices and fostering public discourse. These platforms enable direct communication among citizens, facilitating discussions on urban issues and mobilizing collective action. Unlike official media, which often reproduce state-controlled narratives, social media allows for alternative perspectives.
For instance, during urban protests in Iran, official media framed citizen demands as destabilizing forces, whereas social networks provided a platform for real grievances and solidarity-building. Similar to their role in the Gezi Park protests in Turkey, digital platforms in Iran empower grassroots activism by facilitating awareness campaigns and organizing civic movements.
Social Context Analysis
The Iranian government exerts significant control over media narratives, using state-owned outlets to align urban development discourse with its political agenda. Official media primarily reflect state perspectives, limiting critical discourse and reinforcing existing power structures.
In contrast, independent media and social networks serve as spaces for marginalized voices, emphasizing social justice and citizen participation. While official media often portray security as a priority over citizen engagement, independent platforms challenge these narratives by advocating for inclusive urban policies. This dynamic illustrates the ongoing struggle between state control and civic empowerment in Iran’s urban landscape.
Furthermore, findings suggest that media representations of the “Right to the City” are closely linked to governance and urban policy. Policies prioritizing security over citizen participation influence media narratives, shaping public perceptions and restricting discussions on urban rights. Development projects benefiting elite groups or the state apparatus are frequently framed as necessary for maintaining order, sidelining the perspectives of affected communities.
Discussion
The findings align with Lefebvre’s theory of the “Right to the City” and Fairclough’s CDA framework, underscoring media’s dual role in shaping public discourse. Official media in Iran, influenced by state policies, prioritize security-oriented narratives that undermine social justice. In contrast, independent media and civil society activists promote equity, challenge state-driven narratives, and foster civic engagement.
A comparative analysis of traditional and digital media highlights the growing influence of social networks in disseminating the “Right to the City” discourse. Digital platforms, particularly social media, provide interactive spaces for citizens to engage with urban issues, challenge official narratives, and mobilize grassroots movements.
In contrast, traditional media operate under state-imposed constraints, often homogenizing narratives to align with official policies. While official media focus on security and order, digital platforms amplify marginalized voices, allowing for alternative discussions on urban governance.
The Role of Policy and Media in Urban Rights
Policy-making is instrumental in shaping media discourse and public perceptions of urban rights. State-controlled media, driven by policy imperatives, often suppress dissent and reinforce dominant narratives of control. Conversely, independent media, outside direct state oversight, empower citizens by promoting participatory and justice-oriented discourses.
Policies prioritizing security over civic engagement contribute to media content that marginalizes vulnerable groups and reinforces inequalities. In contrast, policies fostering media plurality and transparency enable diverse voices to emerge, promoting inclusive urban discussions.
The interaction between policy and media highlights the necessity of supporting independent platforms and reforming restrictive policies to ensure balanced representations of urban rights. Shifting policy priorities toward equitable access and civic participation can contribute to a more just urban future.
This study demonstrates that the “Right to the City” can serve as both a mechanism for social justice and citizen participation or as a tool for social control. Iranian official media predominantly reproduce security-driven discourses, while independent media advocate for justice and civic engagement.
To enhance the media’s role in fostering inclusive urban discourse, the following recommendations are proposed:
Enhancing Media Literacy: Educate citizens on how to engage critically with media narratives and actively advocate for their rights.
Supporting Independent Media: Implement policies that protect media plurality and enable diverse perspectives on urban issues.
Promoting Participatory Platforms: Develop digital spaces that allow citizens to engage meaningfully in discussions around urban policies and governance.
Leveraging Technology: Utilize digital tools to increase transparency, facilitate access to information, and strengthen citizen participation in urban decision-making.
By prioritizing transparency, civic engagement, and digital inclusion, both media and policymakers can contribute to a more just and equitable urban future.
Ethical considerations
Authors’ contributions
Since this article is derived from the doctoral thesis of the first author, Mr. Saeid Gholami, entitled “ A Discourse Analysis of the Right to the City in Iran with a Focus on Urban Space” at Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, it was prepared under the guidance of Dr. Atoosa Modiri and with the scientific advice of Dr. Ali Tayebi.
Funding
No direct financial support was received from any institution or organization for the preparation of this article.
Conflicts of interest
This article does not overlap with other published works of the authors.
Following the ethics of research
In this article, all rights related to research ethics have been respected.
Introduction
The rapid urbanization of recent decades has introduced new challenges in citizenship rights and urban management. One key concept addressing these challenges is the “Right to the City,” first introduced by Henri Lefebvre in the 1960s. This discourse redefines the relationship between citizens, urban spaces, and power structures, emphasizing equal access to urban resources and active participation in decision-making. The concept asserts that cities should be shaped according to the needs and aspirations of all inhabitants rather than the interests of a privileged few.
In Iran, the media play a dual role in representing this discourse, acting either as a tool for public awareness or as an instrument of social control. This study investigates how Iranian media portray the ‘Right to the City’ and identifies two dominant functions in their discourse: empowering citizens and reinforcing state control.
Method
Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) framework is employed in this study to analyzing 182 texts from official media and social networks (2001–2021) across three levels:
Textual Analysis: An examination of linguistic and structural features, such as word choice and syntax, to understand how media shapes perceptions of the “Right to the City.”
Discursive Process Analysis: Investigates how discourses are produced, distributed, and consumed, emphasizing power relations between media producers and audiences.
Social Context Analysis: Explores how political, social, and economic conditions influence media representations and their broader societal implications.
Findings
Textual Analysis
Findings reveal a stark contrast between official and independent media. Official media employ restrictive vocabulary emphasizing “public order” and “social security,” reinforcing narratives of control. Terms such as “security measures” and “law enforcement” frequently frame urban protests as threats to stability.
Conversely, independent media and social networks adopt justice-oriented and participatory language, highlighting terms like “social justice,” “citizens’ rights,” and “public participation.” They frame urban development as a matter of justice rather than solely a technical or managerial issue, advocating for equitable access to urban spaces.
Discursive Process Analysis
Social media exert a critical influence in amplifying citizen voices and fostering public discourse. These platforms enable direct communication among citizens, facilitating discussions on urban issues and mobilizing collective action. Unlike official media, which often reproduce state-controlled narratives, social media allows for alternative perspectives.
For instance, during urban protests in Iran, official media framed citizen demands as destabilizing forces, whereas social networks provided a platform for real grievances and solidarity-building. Similar to their role in the Gezi Park protests in Turkey, digital platforms in Iran empower grassroots activism by facilitating awareness campaigns and organizing civic movements.
Social Context Analysis
The Iranian government exerts significant control over media narratives, using state-owned outlets to align urban development discourse with its political agenda. Official media primarily reflect state perspectives, limiting critical discourse and reinforcing existing power structures.
In contrast, independent media and social networks serve as spaces for marginalized voices, emphasizing social justice and citizen participation. While official media often portray security as a priority over citizen engagement, independent platforms challenge these narratives by advocating for inclusive urban policies. This dynamic illustrates the ongoing struggle between state control and civic empowerment in Iran’s urban landscape.
Furthermore, findings suggest that media representations of the “Right to the City” are closely linked to governance and urban policy. Policies prioritizing security over citizen participation influence media narratives, shaping public perceptions and restricting discussions on urban rights. Development projects benefiting elite groups or the state apparatus are frequently framed as necessary for maintaining order, sidelining the perspectives of affected communities.
Discussion
The findings align with Lefebvre’s theory of the “Right to the City” and Fairclough’s CDA framework, underscoring media’s dual role in shaping public discourse. Official media in Iran, influenced by state policies, prioritize security-oriented narratives that undermine social justice. In contrast, independent media and civil society activists promote equity, challenge state-driven narratives, and foster civic engagement.
A comparative analysis of traditional and digital media highlights the growing influence of social networks in disseminating the “Right to the City” discourse. Digital platforms, particularly social media, provide interactive spaces for citizens to engage with urban issues, challenge official narratives, and mobilize grassroots movements.
In contrast, traditional media operate under state-imposed constraints, often homogenizing narratives to align with official policies. While official media focus on security and order, digital platforms amplify marginalized voices, allowing for alternative discussions on urban governance.
The Role of Policy and Media in Urban Rights
Policy-making is instrumental in shaping media discourse and public perceptions of urban rights. State-controlled media, driven by policy imperatives, often suppress dissent and reinforce dominant narratives of control. Conversely, independent media, outside direct state oversight, empower citizens by promoting participatory and justice-oriented discourses.
Policies prioritizing security over civic engagement contribute to media content that marginalizes vulnerable groups and reinforces inequalities. In contrast, policies fostering media plurality and transparency enable diverse voices to emerge, promoting inclusive urban discussions.
The interaction between policy and media highlights the necessity of supporting independent platforms and reforming restrictive policies to ensure balanced representations of urban rights. Shifting policy priorities toward equitable access and civic participation can contribute to a more just urban future.
This study demonstrates that the “Right to the City” can serve as both a mechanism for social justice and citizen participation or as a tool for social control. Iranian official media predominantly reproduce security-driven discourses, while independent media advocate for justice and civic engagement.
To enhance the media’s role in fostering inclusive urban discourse, the following recommendations are proposed:
Enhancing Media Literacy: Educate citizens on how to engage critically with media narratives and actively advocate for their rights.
Supporting Independent Media: Implement policies that protect media plurality and enable diverse perspectives on urban issues.
Promoting Participatory Platforms: Develop digital spaces that allow citizens to engage meaningfully in discussions around urban policies and governance.
Leveraging Technology: Utilize digital tools to increase transparency, facilitate access to information, and strengthen citizen participation in urban decision-making.
By prioritizing transparency, civic engagement, and digital inclusion, both media and policymakers can contribute to a more just and equitable urban future.
Table 1: Research Characteristics and CDA Methodology
Table 2: Findings on Media Representation of the “Right to the City”
Table 2: Findings on Media Representation of the “Right to the City”
Ethical considerations
Authors’ contributions
Since this article is derived from the doctoral thesis of the first author, Mr. Saeid Gholami, entitled “ A Discourse Analysis of the Right to the City in Iran with a Focus on Urban Space” at Islamic Azad University, Central Tehran Branch, it was prepared under the guidance of Dr. Atoosa Modiri and with the scientific advice of Dr. Ali Tayebi.
Funding
No direct financial support was received from any institution or organization for the preparation of this article.
Conflicts of interest
This article does not overlap with other published works of the authors.
Following the ethics of research
In this article, all rights related to research ethics have been respected.
Type of Study: orginal |
Received: 2024/11/24 | Accepted: 2025/03/12 | Published: 2025/07/6
Received: 2024/11/24 | Accepted: 2025/03/12 | Published: 2025/07/6
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