Volume 26, Issue 1 (4-2026)
Social Welfare Quarterly 2026, 26(1): 97-127 |
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Vameghi M, Saatchi M, Takaffoli M, Ahmadi S, Karimzadeh Ghamsari M, Ashour M, et al . (2026). Online Education Outcomes Two Years After the COVID-19 Epidemic in Iran. Social Welfare Quarterly. 26(1), 97-127. doi:10.32598/refahj.26.100.5
URL: http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-4499-en.html
URL: http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-4499-en.html
Meroe Vameghi 
, Mohammad Saatchi , Marzieh Takaffoli , Sina Ahmadi , Mansoureh Karimzadeh Ghamsari , Maryam Ashour , Razieh Lak , Hajar Balavi , Giti Bahrami *
, Mohammad Saatchi , Marzieh Takaffoli , Sina Ahmadi , Mansoureh Karimzadeh Ghamsari , Maryam Ashour , Razieh Lak , Hajar Balavi , Giti Bahrami *
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Extended Abstract
Introduction
In March 2020, a global pandemic of COVID-19 was declared. The pandemic and lockdown measures, including school closures, fundamentally transformed education systems worldwide, necessitating a rapid shift to virtual and remote learning—a transition that posed significant challenges for all, particularly vulnerable children. Although the compulsory move to remote learning helped mitigate educational losses after school closures, teachers, parents, and students were insufficiently prepared for virtual education and had to adapt swiftly to unforeseen circumstances, which heightened the risk of educational disruption for disadvantaged children. Iran declared a public health emergency on February 19, 2020, and implemented national lockdown measures, including the closure of schools and childcare centers. Following school closures, distance education replaced in-person instruction. However, in April 2022, schools across Iran officially reopened; nevertheless, multiple factors led to the continuation of education in a hybrid format, combining in-person and remote learning. Given the scarcity of evidence on the pandemic's impact on education and its consequences for children's schooling in Iran, this study aims to investigate educational outcomes for children two years after the COVID-19 pandemic and the effect of socioeconomic characteristics of children and families on their educational continuation and learning achievements.
Method
This study was conducted in Tehran and Karaj between July and October 2022. Tehran, housing 9 million people across 22 districts, is the capital of Iran. Karaj, situated at the heart of Alborz province, represents the primary immigrant destination in Iran after Tehran, accommodating approximately 1.6 million individuals across its 12 districts. This population-based cross-sectional study evaluated health, education, and other social implications of the COVID-19 pandemic in the pediatric population, with the present article focusing on children's educational status. The household survey employed multistage cluster sampling to assess children aged 7–18 and their families in Tehran and Karaj. Sample size calculation was performed using a proportion estimation formula, assuming a 9% prevalence of coronavirus-related disruption in children, an absolute error margin of 0.018, a 25% non-response rate, and a design effect of 1.5, yielding a minimum sample of 2,062 children in Tehran and 960 in Karaj. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire for two age groups: 7–14 and 15–18 years. For children aged 7–14, interviews were conducted with the mother, father, or another informed adult caregiver who completed the questionnaire. For adolescents aged 15–18, interviews were conducted directly with the respective informant. Two distinct components were assessed: demographic characteristics of the child and family, and variables related to educational consequences of the pandemic. After initial questionnaire development, it was sent to eight experts in social health, education, epidemiology, and pediatrics to determine face validity. The mean Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) were 0.84 and 0.79, respectively, indicating satisfactory validity. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to model independent predictors. Data were analyzed using Stata software version 14, with a significance level of 0.05. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences (IR.USWR.REC.1401.001).
Findings
This study analyzed data from 2,878 children and adolescents: 2,057 children (71.5%) aged 7–14 and 821 adolescents (28.5%) aged 15–18, all residing in Tehran and Karaj. The mean age of participants was 12.4 ± 3.1 years, and 49.6% were boys. Among participants, 8.4% were Afghan, and the remainder were Iranian. The overall prevalence of out-of-school children in our study was 8.4% (95% CI, 7.3–9.3%). Among the 2,274 children who were registered and completed the school year, approximately 14.8% continued exclusively online, whereas 10.5% pursued in-person education. The remaining children (74.7%) received a combination of online and in-person methods, depending on epidemic waves, school reopening schedules, and internet access. The most significant challenges of virtual education reported by families and students were poor device quality, device-sharing with other family members, high cost and low internet speed, poor quality of virtual teaching, teacher unavailability, and students’ lack of interest in remote learning. Approximately 57% of children experienced a significant decline in learning quality after the pandemic—reported for 53% of the 7–14 age group and about 69% of the 15–18 age group. The odds ratio for out-of-school 15- to 18-year-olds was 1.92 times that of 7- to 14-year-olds. Key challenges for the 197 unregistered students included device issues, internet problems, and difficulties with virtual learning. Home and family problems were the primary reasons for non-registration. Boys had 2.5 times higher risk than girls, and Afghan children faced 12.7 times higher odds compared to Iranian children. Children with an unemployed, intermittently employed, or retired head of household had greater odds of being school dropouts than those with an employed head.
Discussion
This is one of the few studies that has surveyed educational access among a population-based sample of children in Iran during the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the pandemic's onset, virtual education for Iranian students was rapidly implemented through the launch of the "Shaad" virtual system by the Ministry of Education in April 2020. National school closures lasted for about two academic years, and schools officially reopened following the initiation of child vaccinations in the second half of the 2021–2022 school year (April 2022). The study results showed that a considerable number of participants were out of school, and the learning quality of many children declined. However, this impact was disproportionately more severe for children from poor economic backgrounds and the Afghan migrant population. Overall, the findings indicate that two years after the pandemic, the country's virtual education infrastructure remains vulnerable to shortcomings in both quantity and quality. The pandemic has affected school attendance and learning quality for many children—two of the most important dimensions of child well-being. Since COVID-19 has exacerbated the rising trend of school dropouts, future actions should focus not only on pandemic-related factors but also on pre-existing causes of dropout and learning challenges among children, particularly family economic conditions.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance With Ethical Guidelines
This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences (IR.USWR.REC.1401.001). Participants were assured that their information and responses would remain confidential. For children aged 7–14 years, written informed consent was obtained from the parent or guardian participating in the interview process. For adolescents aged 15–18 years, written informed consent was obtained from both the child and the parent or guardian present during the interview session; parents were permitted to attend the session with their 15- to 18-year-old children.
Authors’ Contributions
Conceptualization: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi
Data curation: Meroe Vameghi, Giti Bahrami
Methodology: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi, Sina Ahmadi
Funding acquisition: Meroe Vameghi, Giti Bahrami
Project administration: Mohammad Saatchi, Marzieh Takaffoli
Software: Mohammad Saatchi
Supervision: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi
Writing – original draft: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi, Razieh Lak, Maryam Ashour
Writing – review & editing: Marzieh Takaffoli, Mansoureh Karimzadeh, Hajar Balavi
Funding
This study was supported by the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences and Alborz University of Medical Sciences.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interes
Introduction
In March 2020, a global pandemic of COVID-19 was declared. The pandemic and lockdown measures, including school closures, fundamentally transformed education systems worldwide, necessitating a rapid shift to virtual and remote learning—a transition that posed significant challenges for all, particularly vulnerable children. Although the compulsory move to remote learning helped mitigate educational losses after school closures, teachers, parents, and students were insufficiently prepared for virtual education and had to adapt swiftly to unforeseen circumstances, which heightened the risk of educational disruption for disadvantaged children. Iran declared a public health emergency on February 19, 2020, and implemented national lockdown measures, including the closure of schools and childcare centers. Following school closures, distance education replaced in-person instruction. However, in April 2022, schools across Iran officially reopened; nevertheless, multiple factors led to the continuation of education in a hybrid format, combining in-person and remote learning. Given the scarcity of evidence on the pandemic's impact on education and its consequences for children's schooling in Iran, this study aims to investigate educational outcomes for children two years after the COVID-19 pandemic and the effect of socioeconomic characteristics of children and families on their educational continuation and learning achievements.
Method
This study was conducted in Tehran and Karaj between July and October 2022. Tehran, housing 9 million people across 22 districts, is the capital of Iran. Karaj, situated at the heart of Alborz province, represents the primary immigrant destination in Iran after Tehran, accommodating approximately 1.6 million individuals across its 12 districts. This population-based cross-sectional study evaluated health, education, and other social implications of the COVID-19 pandemic in the pediatric population, with the present article focusing on children's educational status. The household survey employed multistage cluster sampling to assess children aged 7–18 and their families in Tehran and Karaj. Sample size calculation was performed using a proportion estimation formula, assuming a 9% prevalence of coronavirus-related disruption in children, an absolute error margin of 0.018, a 25% non-response rate, and a design effect of 1.5, yielding a minimum sample of 2,062 children in Tehran and 960 in Karaj. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire for two age groups: 7–14 and 15–18 years. For children aged 7–14, interviews were conducted with the mother, father, or another informed adult caregiver who completed the questionnaire. For adolescents aged 15–18, interviews were conducted directly with the respective informant. Two distinct components were assessed: demographic characteristics of the child and family, and variables related to educational consequences of the pandemic. After initial questionnaire development, it was sent to eight experts in social health, education, epidemiology, and pediatrics to determine face validity. The mean Content Validity Ratio (CVR) and Content Validity Index (CVI) were 0.84 and 0.79, respectively, indicating satisfactory validity. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were used to model independent predictors. Data were analyzed using Stata software version 14, with a significance level of 0.05. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences (IR.USWR.REC.1401.001).
Findings
This study analyzed data from 2,878 children and adolescents: 2,057 children (71.5%) aged 7–14 and 821 adolescents (28.5%) aged 15–18, all residing in Tehran and Karaj. The mean age of participants was 12.4 ± 3.1 years, and 49.6% were boys. Among participants, 8.4% were Afghan, and the remainder were Iranian. The overall prevalence of out-of-school children in our study was 8.4% (95% CI, 7.3–9.3%). Among the 2,274 children who were registered and completed the school year, approximately 14.8% continued exclusively online, whereas 10.5% pursued in-person education. The remaining children (74.7%) received a combination of online and in-person methods, depending on epidemic waves, school reopening schedules, and internet access. The most significant challenges of virtual education reported by families and students were poor device quality, device-sharing with other family members, high cost and low internet speed, poor quality of virtual teaching, teacher unavailability, and students’ lack of interest in remote learning. Approximately 57% of children experienced a significant decline in learning quality after the pandemic—reported for 53% of the 7–14 age group and about 69% of the 15–18 age group. The odds ratio for out-of-school 15- to 18-year-olds was 1.92 times that of 7- to 14-year-olds. Key challenges for the 197 unregistered students included device issues, internet problems, and difficulties with virtual learning. Home and family problems were the primary reasons for non-registration. Boys had 2.5 times higher risk than girls, and Afghan children faced 12.7 times higher odds compared to Iranian children. Children with an unemployed, intermittently employed, or retired head of household had greater odds of being school dropouts than those with an employed head.
Discussion
This is one of the few studies that has surveyed educational access among a population-based sample of children in Iran during the COVID-19 pandemic. Following the pandemic's onset, virtual education for Iranian students was rapidly implemented through the launch of the "Shaad" virtual system by the Ministry of Education in April 2020. National school closures lasted for about two academic years, and schools officially reopened following the initiation of child vaccinations in the second half of the 2021–2022 school year (April 2022). The study results showed that a considerable number of participants were out of school, and the learning quality of many children declined. However, this impact was disproportionately more severe for children from poor economic backgrounds and the Afghan migrant population. Overall, the findings indicate that two years after the pandemic, the country's virtual education infrastructure remains vulnerable to shortcomings in both quantity and quality. The pandemic has affected school attendance and learning quality for many children—two of the most important dimensions of child well-being. Since COVID-19 has exacerbated the rising trend of school dropouts, future actions should focus not only on pandemic-related factors but also on pre-existing causes of dropout and learning challenges among children, particularly family economic conditions.
Ethical Considerations
Compliance With Ethical Guidelines
This study was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences (IR.USWR.REC.1401.001). Participants were assured that their information and responses would remain confidential. For children aged 7–14 years, written informed consent was obtained from the parent or guardian participating in the interview process. For adolescents aged 15–18 years, written informed consent was obtained from both the child and the parent or guardian present during the interview session; parents were permitted to attend the session with their 15- to 18-year-old children.
Authors’ Contributions
Conceptualization: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi
Data curation: Meroe Vameghi, Giti Bahrami
Methodology: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi, Sina Ahmadi
Funding acquisition: Meroe Vameghi, Giti Bahrami
Project administration: Mohammad Saatchi, Marzieh Takaffoli
Software: Mohammad Saatchi
Supervision: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi
Writing – original draft: Meroe Vameghi, Mohammad Saatchi, Razieh Lak, Maryam Ashour
Writing – review & editing: Marzieh Takaffoli, Mansoureh Karimzadeh, Hajar Balavi
Funding
This study was supported by the University of Social Welfare and Rehabilitation Sciences and Alborz University of Medical Sciences.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interes
Type of Study: orginal |
Received: 2025/07/20 | Accepted: 2026/05/5 | Published: 2026/05/31
Received: 2025/07/20 | Accepted: 2026/05/5 | Published: 2026/05/31
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