---

This paper explores the development of social services in Japan in terms of the broader concepts of welfare Orientalism and Occidentalism . The focus of this paper is on the roles-both negative and positive-played by the "West" in the construction of Japanese social service provision, not only literally in the form of foreign advisers in the early Meiji and post-war Occupation periods, but also metaphorically as a "model" for Japanese social policy makers either to emulate or to avoid . It concentrates in particular on the system of voluntary welfare commissioners called the minseiiin seido and how their role has been variously integrated in the light of ideas about how social welfare has 'developed, and should develop, in the future in Japan in comparison with "Western" societies . The significance of these debates extends beyond welfare since, underlying them, are fundamental ideas about the role and the nature of the "person", the "family", the "community", and as well as the concepts of "civic duties", "rights" and "citizenship", and how these may differ in Japan and North American and West European societies, leading thereby to very different social ideas about "welfare" .

---

Many countries in Asia is undergoing significat demographic , social and economic transformations which challenge the capability of social security schemes to adapt to new emerging needs and the problem of rising social security costs. The Republic of Korea established the first medical insurance Act in 1963. At that time, The Korean government decided to implement a voluntary insurance scheme in view of the difficulties encountered by individuals and enterprises to pay insurance contributions due to the low level of per capita income and the poor financial situation of the enterprises. However, with the successful implementation of three consecutive Five-year Economic Development Plan initiated form 1962 , the Republic of Korea achieved notable economic progress as well as improvements in social welfare protection. In tire fourth Five-year Economic Development Plan, the government re-examined the medical insurance issue in 0rder to provide the population with comprehensive protection against diseases . In 1996, 97.9 percent of the population covered by the medical insurance program the rest were covered by the medical aid program. The financial resources of the medical insurance system come from contributions paid by the insured person and his/her employer and government subsidies. For health care in rural areas , government-operated public health centers , health sub-centers and primary health care post have been established throughout the country. Health expenditure as a percentage of GNP in the Republic of Korea increased from 2.7 per cent in 1970 to 5.4 percent in 1994 the growth rate is approximately 2.9 percent a year. The future option is to further pursue more effective cost containment policies regulating tile supply and demand sides as well as the rates of medical care fees which affect the entire medical market. The experiences of social security and medical insurance system of the Republic of Korea can be used in the countries such as Iran.

---

According to the third-development program in 1379, government was obliged to design a suitable social security polity and submit it to the parliament for final approval. During recent weeks and after nearly a Two-year delay, a bill was edited by government and sent to the Islamic parliament. This long - term delay indicates the serious differences in the field of law - making and necessary framework for common polity designing. In this article, the writer discusses the controversies in law - making, the third - development program, analysing and evaluating the current' health care and social security, different viewpoints and styles and so on.

---

The research discussed in this article consists of the Process ended to propos a structure for social welfare and security which took more than 11 months in social security research institute. The main topics discussed are as follows: 1- The importance of social security and its relationship to economic growth, social justice, human generosity and national honor. 2- The basis and opportunities towards different atitudes about social welfare and security, polity. 3- The portrait of current Iran social security polity in Iran. 4- Social security in international organizations and some chosen countries. 5- Social security and its socio - economic viewpoints in Iran. 6- Choosing the viewpoints, bases, and suitable ideas for Iran and portrait of suitable conditions. The results of this research led to preparing an act on comprehensive social welfare and security that are discussed in some points,

---

This article deals with budgets social of and health cares and social security during the last two decades and brings their its influence on social welfare into consideration. The author lays emphasis on an increasing growth in social expenditures after the Islamic Revolution of Iran. The author continues discussing credibility ratio from GDP and sets up a series of analyses, and comes to this conclusion that the growth hasn’t raised more than $4 per person which doesn’t seem enough for Iranian citizens.

---

Human beings faced economic problems first, some 900 Thousand years ago, when forced out of Africa due to resource shortage compared to their numbers and needs. The start of a communal life some 40 Thousand years ago, gave them more protection and strength and their numbers, as well as their needs increased further. The term Oikonomos meaning prudent management of the household resources and means was coined in Greece, when individuals formed families and forced to take care of their own material affairs, perhaps some three thousand years ago, when they enjoyed their freedoms in city state political units. Human beings struggle to gain back some of their political economic freedoms took them more than two thousand years, and still only a small number of them called entrepreneur managed to gain power and position to run their own affairs and lead the way to early forms of democratic governments and a more or less free enterprise system with all its shortcomings. It has taken the individual citizen, the worker, the wage earner almost another one hundred years to have a real saying in the formation of governments, and in their duties and responsibilities towards the people specially those in need. Today in a democratic society, with an economy controlled anti managed by the people, social security of all the people even of the under privileged groups is of prime importance. The combination of democracy and free enterprise has made continuous economic growth and prosperity a reality in a large part of the world. People in Industrial countries in particular, with the highest gains, can afford to think more and more of their own well being and the well being of their fellow countrymen. Incomes are. growing fast anti a larger and larger portion of it is set aside for social security and welfare, people, aside from housing life insurance, and numerous savings, pay more anti more for health insurance, covering not only illnesses, injuries, operations hospitalizations, drugs, rehabilitation needs, also the loss of income for the time spent to recover and go back to work. Governments in countries with free enterprise systems, have made mandatory, a lot of social security coverage. People themselves have aungmented those coverage by devising new programs, new institutions, as well as new instruments. Put together, People living in democratic societies with free enterprise system, today have "safety nets" providing, them with Pensions unemployment insurance, health insurance, old age ]tension, casualties, job hazards and many more coverage for the employed. There are many programs to help the blind, the poor, families with dependent children the head start for preschool poor children, the food stamp for the poor, child care for working mothers, housing for the low income families and the homeless. There are also supplemental security income, mediaids and medi care programs and so on, for low income families, which of course dose not mean that the coverage is universal anti everybody in need is being help out. A developed economy with a more or less free enterprise system allocates between 10 to 15 percent of its GDP directly for health related services and the government share is increasing much faster than of the private sector. The safety net contains many diversified programs to meet the new emerging needs, under a new industrial - social environment. A comprehensive social security and welfare scheme is a luxurious but necessary consumer product, provided only by free enterprise in a democratic society, where the social conscience have the chance to germinate.

---

The concepts “Welfare” and “Security” while combined by the concept “Social” are of new ones born during modern developments. Because of such characteristic, they have got involved in modern social affairs and it seems impossible to make a clear and comprehensive definition for them so that all the experts have a common idea about it. But bringing their formations into account and their applications either, will lead us to a reasonable understanding of them. “Social Welfare” is used to indicate to a condition including economic, social and political one and focuses on human being, society accountability to human being and tries to promote the social potential as a whole in individual and group aspects. “Social Welfare” has although many things in common with social welfare, but has a different attitude toward the problems. In this article, a clear definition is represented for any of these basic items.

---

Expansion and development of social security and overcoming sickness, aging, unemployment, poverty risks and so on have always been a strategic goal and also a long – term strategy for all communities and governments in the world. This aim is a powerful instrument for making security, stability and social equity. For reaching to this purpose First should be setting the quantitative and qualitative objectives and compare those with macro structure of economical, social, cultural and political systems of each country. Even though in Iran has been made many efforts for social security system development in the last fifty years and this development also protect great number of urban workers, but this trend has not been compatible with basics of social security systems like comprehensiveness, sufficiency and universality for Iran's new society. For above reasons and with attention to deep economical and social changes, especially movements from centralized economical to decentralized economical structure (Market Economy), should be review conformity between social security systems with market economy factors. Of course breach of market economy regulations will give cause for imbalance between social security fund's incomes and outcomes and reduces social security services level in long term which is against basic human needs. This article has been studied relations between social security system (social insurance and social protection) and economical structure for scientific analysis of social security role in Iran's economy

---

Housing Poverty in Iran may be interpreted differently for urban and rural areas. In urban areas, it reveals itself in informal settlement and is escalating. But in rural areas, it is usually due to poor construction material and structure, and also the number of rooms. In general, poverty is more widespread in rural areas and housing poverty is more so. In this article, I intend to show that the lack of a social policy for providing housing, that means the shortcomings of housing planning and social security systems and accord between the two, is the main cause of the governments inability to alleviate housing poverty and subsequently to establish social justice.

---

Objective: Social Security as an essential element for modern life, formed in follow of world wide evolutions in concepts of rights and political thoughts of governing. In spite of many researches in the field of social security from social, economic, political and historical view points, there were not often legal analyses in this matter. Method: The purpose of this paper is to study the social security creation and completion process according to the history of global conventions and provisions. Findings: There are two per-suppositions for this research: the relation between rights and duties, afterwards social security as one part of human rights.

---

Objective: This article investigates the relationship between crime and barbarism with sence safety. The hypotheses was built on Jacobs and Zukin’s theories, in this way: Barbarism has more effect on people feeling about safety and symbolic access and presence of people can increase the feeling of safety. Method: The resaech is a testing theory one and Analysis is based on Kernel density and Chi-Square test in Cross tab. Sample size is 364 and the procedure of sampling is clustering, by 14 urban spaces as clusters. Findings & Results: There is no strong relationship between crime, Barbarism and sence of safty But crime has effective role on presence of people in urban spaces. The results of research do not support Jacobs’s theory about the more importance role of barbarism, but they support Hiller’s theory about decreasing of safety by most high levels of activity and presence of people.

---

Objectives: Social security is a key factor in human life. Despite its importance, only recently, sociologists carried out research about it. In this study, we try to define societal security and conduct a comparative study about it. We try to measure the level of societal security in different regions of Tehran and then to compare them. Method: The research is carried out in two regions of Tehran (south and north), and the main tool is questionnaire. The sample size is 420. Finding & Result: It shows that each region has its own level of societal security. The global index shows that in the north, the level of societal security is significantly higher than the south. To live in the north of Tehran, produce less emotional Security on the contrary, in the south financial and professional security is significantly lower. Societal Security is a Socio-cultural Phenomenon, therefore, its realization needs the collaboration of the whole social network.

---

Objectives: In each year, Iranian government provides for food subsidy in its budget. Recently, the effect of food subsidy to the households has been controversial. It is clear that the goal of paying food subsidy is providing the needs of calories for each person and the community food security as a whole. Studies show that about 10-20 percent of Iranian households, intake less calorie than they need. Then it can be a good reason for Iranian government to continue the food subsidy payment. Method: In this Article we use vector autoregressive method for investigating relationship between per capita calorie intake, food subsidy, income and food prices in Iran, using annual data for 1961-2004. Calorie intake is average per capita energy (calorie) intake per day, calculated on the basis of per capita dietary energy derived from national food balance sheets (source FAO:2006). Real per capita GDP is adjusted with CPI in 1990 and the real food price index is the corresponding nominal index deflated by the CPI in 1990 (Source: Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran year book). The real food price index (1990 prices) is the corresponding nominal indexed by the CPI (source: Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran year book). Food subsidy (1990 prices) is deflated by CPI (source: Consumers and Producers Protection Organization). Findings: On the basis of Augmented Dicky Fuller unit root test we find that all variables have only one unit root. In respect to LR, AIC and FPE criteria, the best lag length for initial VAR model is 3 lag. For determining the number of long-run relationships between the variables, we used trace statistics. On the basis of this statistics we only find one long-run relationship (cointegration) between variables. The long run relationship was only significant between calorie intake, income and food subsidy variables. The weakly exogenous test shows that food subsidy does not respond to the discrepancy from long-run equilibrium and income and calorie intake do all of the adjustment. We use the final model for investigating the effect of food subsidy reduction on Iranian households' calorie intake. The final model shows that long run income elasticity of calorie demand is 0/16. Also results show that long run food subsidy elasticity of calorie demand is inelastic at 0/009. Since feedback exists between calorie intake, income and food subsidy variables, this ceteris paribus interpretation is potentially misleading because it ignores relations between the three variables in the VAR model. Then, impulse responses may give a better picture of the relations between the variables. Since all the variables are I (1), the effects of the shocks are permanent. The results show that one unit reduction in food subsidy without income compensation has a considerable negative effect on calorie intake in short-run and that it takes around five years for households to adjust themselves to the new condition. But, if one standard error food subsidy reduction occurs with the same amount of income compensation, then the effect of income compensation not only removes the negative effects of subsidy reduction, but also will have positive effect on calorie intake in short-run and long-run. Results: it seems that focus on food subsidy reduction without considering income growth will deteriorate Iranian household calorie intake.

---

Objectives: Social security organizations play a central role in financing health care expenditure around the world. In Iran, statistics show the average yearly per capita growth of social security health care expenditure (SHE) in current and constant price is 15.6 and 2.3 percent for the period of 1961 -2003 respectively. From theoretical points these expenditure must remain or decreasing in constant price over time and only factor that cause the increase is real income. So, this article tries to give an answer to this question: what factors determine the changes of yearly per capita health care expenditure of Iran Social Security Organization over the time? Methods: The health insurance approach theory of determinants of the SHE suggest, in order to answer the above question, SHE (dependent variable) must examined against three major groups of explanatory variables (independent variables): economic, demographic, and health stock variables. The method in this paper is regression analysis with a simple Cobb-Douglass cost function. After collecting data and examining all estimating methods, the cost function estimated with ordinary lest square (OLS) method and this method fit data very well. Findings: The main findings of the model are following: 1-real health insurance premium has a positive, elastic and significant effect on SHE. 2-health price index has a positive, inelastic effect on SHE.3-cities with over than 100000 inhabitants has a positive , elastic and significant effect on SHE.4- government public health expenditure has a negative, inelastic effect on SHE.5-number of retirements has a negative and inelastic effect on SHE.6-the real per capita income has a positive and inelastic effect on SHE.7-number of physician pre adjusted population has a positive effect on SHE.8-number of unretired population has a positive effect on SHE. 9-asymmetry information and supplier induced demand have positive and significant effect on SHE. 10-real expenditure on health administration has a positive effect on SHE. When the residuals estimated from the regressions are subjected to the ADF unit root test the conclusion is that they are stationary. The results also suggest the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is not spurious, but it is a co integration relation. Based on the co integration technique, it is found that the dependent and independent variables demonstrate long run relationship. Results: This paper has shown a relatively simple model focusing on a key group of variable, namely economic, health stock and demographic can explain the raise in SHE. There are evidence of existence of supplier induced demand (SID) that makes Iran’s social security organization health expenditure increase over the time. It is necessary to control the behaviors of physicians who induced demand. There are evidence of existence of moral hazard and adverse selection makes SHE increase over time in constant price. Numbers of big cities and health price index have positive effect on SHE. Government health care expenditure has negative effect on SHE. Per capita income has positive effect on SHE. In general, what emerges from these exercises is that changes in the economic, demographic and health stock variables produce persistent changes in the SHE, and these findings don’t support the contention that the per capita real income is the only major determinate of the per capita real health care spending. In order to decrease the speed of SHE growth the main way is to control these variables and decrease their effect on SHE over time.

---

Objective: The aim of present study was to investigate the rate of awareness and satisfaction of people under the social security insurance after the execution of records improvement scheme in the city of Kashan during the years 2004 to 2005. Method: To achieve this end ,a descriptive survey design was utilized .All the individual who benefited from the social security insurance in Kashan comprised the intended target population from which 300 participants were randomly selected .The research instrument was a researcher developed questionnaire consisting of 23 close-ended questions .A five-point likert scale was used for rating the responses .Chronbach’s alpha coefficient formula was used for calculating both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for data analysis . The validity of the questionnair which happened to be 0.98 .The former measured frequency , percentile and values while the latter enlisted such statistical techniques as one-variable t-test , independent t-test ,Analysis of variance (ANOVA) , tukey test and pearson product moment formula . Finding: The findings revealed that the rate of awarness and satisfaction of the insured individuals were above the average refenence level at the p-level of 0.01 . The results of the tukey test indicated that the rate of satisfaction and awareness of the participants with an associate degree or higher level certificates was more than those with lower level degree.The responses also differed significantly according to the length of insurance record. Infact , individuals with an insurance record of above 21 years showed a greater rate of awareness and satisfaction compared with those whose insurance record won below 10,11 and 20 years. In the some view , individuals with an insurance record of 41 years possessed higher rates of awareness and satisfaction in compared with those with insurance records below 40 , 31 and 30 years. Finally , comparing awareness and satisfaction average values revealed that the participants’ responses differed significantly according to sex. Overall, the rate of awareness and satisfaction for male participants was higher than that of females. Results: According to tha findings,factors such as insurance record,sex and level of certificates have a positive relation with the rate of satisfaction and awareness of insured individuals. Also there is a positive relation between the rate of satisfaction and awareness, that means the higher degree of satisfaction arrive at the higher of awareness.

---

Objectives: Different sociological theories are suggested to explain the fear of crime. These theories account variables such as disorganization, media effects, victimization, ecological variables for the explanation of the phenomenon. This paper aims to examine the implications of disorganization theory for the fear of crime.

Method: A sample of adults inhabitants of two districts of Tehran (district 3 and 12) were interviewed in a survey study. These two districts are quite different with regard to physical and social disorganization. While district three is an influent well organized area, district 12 is in an opposite situation. The variable of fear of crime was considered as a two dimensional phenomenon including feeling of security and worry of crime. Disorganization comprised of disorder, social worry, subculture diversities, neighborhood bonds, neighborhood attachment. These variables were measured by a 5 point Likert scale.

Findings: Fear of crime among the inhabitants of are 12 was more than that of the inhabitants of area 3. The feelings of disorganization, except that of neighborhood bonds, among the inhabitants of are 12 were also more than those of the inhabitants of area 3. The data also revealed that there were a significant relationship between perceived disorganization and fear of crime.

Results: These findings give significant support to the disorganization theory and are consistent with the previous studies. The only odd result is the positive relationship between neighborhood bonds and fear of crime. This may be explained by the social fabric of inhabitants of area 12. That is, they are mostly immigrants of rural and small cities which still have more connection with their neighbors while the social and physical disorganization of their area cause more fear of crime, they still have their neighborhood ties. 

---

Objective: Citizens have many rights and commitments. "Citizenship commitments" induce social order and make social affairs predictable. Such a concept due to its nature and meaning holds relation with entire subjects and debates of currently human and social fields. Method: This research is a survey on citizens over the age of 18 in Tehran city. Sampling method is compound of classified and random method. Social capital has two dimensions: participaion and trust. It is measured by personal and impersonal trust and participaion in privacy and public spheres. insecurity has four dimensions financial, collective, thinking and body insecurity. Relative social deprivation measured by compare of self with generalized others. Anomy has measured in four dimensions of social, cultural, economical and politic anomy. Citizenship commitment include behavioral and sense of (generalized) commitments. Sense of commitment measured by level of belonging to the society and country and behavioral commitments measured by respect to the law, pay tax, tamper, etc. Findings: social capital and universalism have significant positive impact and feeling of insecurity and social anomy had significant negative impact upon citizenship commitments. In addition, feeling of insecurity has three indirect impacts upon citizenship commitments via social capital, universalism and social anomy. Women have more commitment than men. Also older people have more commitment than younger. Results: There is relation between micro and macro levels. In order to analysis the affecting factors on citizenship commitments, it is necessary to take the role of macro structure in to account, especially power structure. Thus despotism makes a social psychology which reduces citizenship commitments. It can be concluded that despotism decrease citizenship commitments and in the extreme it could delay going toward civil society and it could reproduce structures related to despotism. As most important research variable feeling of insecurity has direct and indirect effect on citizenship commitment. It has indirect effect via social capital, universalism and anomy. The best result of this research is that despotism can be most important factor that affect on citizenship commitment

---

Introduction: Neoliberals claim on the necessity of falling back and decreasing the social security costs basically relies on this argument that in the current situation which the world system is increasingly moving toward globalization, such costs cause damage to a country`s economic and social conditions, and decreasing social security costs and receding from welfare state are the necessary, if not sufficient, conditions for any country to develop. This viewpoint completely disagrees with classic’s (who defend welfare state) who believe social security costs is the necessary condition to improve welfare of people and to ensure fair distribution of incomes. This research is going to test these two contending theories in Iran. Method: To analyze the relation between socio-economic development and social security in Iran and to test hypotheses derived from theoretical frameworks, considering official statistics published by relevant institutions and organizations, regression analysis and Pearson correlation coefficient tests used to examine and test the mentioned hypothesis. Finding: The results of applying different regression models show that on the one hand, the costs of social security has had positive effect on economic growth in Iran but it`s effect is less than job and capital’s, and on the other hand, social security development is associated with a decrease in poverty but its effect has not been significant because of budget constraint and stronger effects of factors such as inflation. Conclusion: any attempt to quantitative and qualitative expansion of social security should be in such way that in addition to invest on the development of the job and capital resource, policy makers should pay more attention to insurance development.

---

 

  Introduction: With rapid growth of population and increase need to social security, construction of comprehensive system of social security is a need and for designing a comprehensive system, it is necessary to study and apply acceptable as well as efficient fundamental principles.

  Literature Review :The social security system has a series of common and particular principles. In some cases the legal system of Iran has failed to reconcile social security system with the tenets of social security and there are many defects in this area. The main purpose of this article has been the critical study of the application of the governing principles of social security in Iran's law.

  Conclusion: Iranian Social Security System has faced with major challenges which lead to increase of poverty, unemployment and decrease of productivity and finally based on the results, hardly, there is achievement of social security principles.

---

  

  Introduction : Informal settlement in cities is basically due to several factors, some of the most important factors are heterogeneous development and imbalance availability in using facilities in urban and rural areas. There for, this condition has an undeniable impact on the rate of crime and other social problems.

  Methods : This study was conducted by using survey questionnaires and observations in 1388 in Bushehr . Numbers of questionnaires were completed for 162 people in the central prison of Bushehr. Questionnaires have been randomly distributed among the people based on their economic situations and social dimensions of space. Analyzing of the data was conducted using Pearson's coefficient and statistical softwares SPSS, Excel, and Geographic Information System (GIS).

  Findings : Research findings have shown that the largest amount of crime have been in Jabri and Saleh Abad , being 14.5 percent and 9.67 percent respectively. And the lowest amount of crime belongs to Dehdashti, Behbahani, Poor and Behesht Sadegh with 1.16 percent. In addition, there is a significant relationship between the number of crime and housing status (p<0.01)

  Conclusion : Results have shown that factors such as poor financial situation, poor housing, living place, lack of good jobs, and having informal jobs and low income, are aspects of visual informal settlements which help us to find criminal areas in order to prevent some crimes such as theft, smuggling and illegal ways to earn income . Also suggestions are given to reduce crime and increase security in this regard.