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Hatamian P, Tabatabaei K. (2026). Experts perspectives on social factors related to emotion and emotion regulation: A qualitative study. refahj. 25(99), : 5 doi:10.32598/refahj.25.99.2416.4
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URL: http://refahj.uswr.ac.ir/article-1-4447-en.html
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Extended Abstract
Introduction
Emotions are typically understood as individual experiences arising from the interplay of physiology, cognitive appraisal, and behavior (Butler, 2011; Taylor, & et al., 2007). However, emotional events are inherently embedded within specific social and cultural contexts, and the strategies individuals employ to regulate their emotions are pivotal for successful social navigation. Consequently, the process and outcomes of emotion regulation are heavily contingent upon contextual standards and cultural definitions of appropriate feeling and expression (Butler & et al., 2007). A substantial body of research underscores the profound link between emotion regulation and cultural components (Kwok & et al., 2013; Lim, 2016). As a transdiagnostic construct, emotion regulation is demonstrably culture-dependent; cultures shape norms, values, and beliefs that prescribe specific regulatory strategies, thereby influencing whether such regulation is adaptive or maladaptive within a given society (Ford & Mauss, 2015). Empirical findings indicate that individuals modulate positive and negative emotions—maintaining, enhancing, or reducing them—according to culturally specific beliefs, customs, and values (Miyamoto & Peterman, 2014). Aligning with this, Ford and Mauss (2015) posit that emotion regulation is adaptive when congruent with an individual’s socio-cultural context and maladaptive when incongruent.
Methods
This qualitative study employed a latent content analysis approach. Inductive content analysis aims to organize data, extract meaning, and draw valid inferences from textual materials within their context of use. The target population consisted of active Iranian scholars and practitioners specializing in emotion regulation in 2020. Using purposive sampling, eleven experts were selected based on their scientific, research, and clinical backgrounds in the field. Recruitment and interviewing continued until theoretical data saturation was achieved. Inclusion criteria required a Ph.D. in psychology, a minimum of three years of clinical experience in emotion regulation, and at least one relevant publication within the preceding two years. Exclusion criteria included providing unconvincing or incomplete answers and unwillingness to participate. Ethical protocols were strictly followed, including obtaining written informed consent prior to each interview. Semi-structured interviews, averaging 42 minutes in duration, were conducted with a focus on social factors influencing emotion regulation in Iranian society.
Findings
Interview analysis yielded three main categories and six subcategories related to social factors affecting emotion regulation. The core categories are: (1) Social Interactions, encompassing the subcategories of effective social relationships and the expectations of others; (2) Social Norms of Emotional Expression, comprising emotion facilitators and emotion inhibitors; and (3) Gender Stereotypes in Emotion Regulation, involving gender-related taboos and the demarcation of gender-appropriate emotions.
Discussion
This study qualitatively explored experts’ perspectives on social factors related to emotion and its regulation. The findings reveal that diverse social factors significantly shape emotional expression and regulatory strategies. Qualitative analysis indicates that social interactions directly and indirectly influence the regulation of a wide range of emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, fear). The behavior and expectations of others in daily relationships play a critical role in shaping individuals’ regulatory approaches. This aligns with the fundamental human need for social connection, wherein relationships can either foster psychological health or, through inappropriate expectations, contribute to psychological distress. This finding resonates with research by Chiao et al. (2021) and Ma and et al. (2018).
The results further demonstrate that social norms exert a powerful influence on how emotions are expressed and regulated. Emotional behavior is expected to conform to societal prescriptions; deviations are often deemed undesirable or reprehensible. Crucially, not all norms exert uniform influence; some facilitate emotional expression while others inhibit it. This observation is supported by Van Kleef and Côté (2022), who assert that societal rules profoundly shape individual emotions. Similarly, research by Goodman and et al. (2021) on emotional control in social anxiety disorders highlights the role of personal beliefs and social rules, providing parallel evidence consistent with the present findings.
Ethical considerations
This article has been approved with the ethics code IR.MODARES.REC.1399.148. Also, in this study, an attempt has been made to observe all the criteria of research methodology and research ethics. Finally, we are deeply grateful to all the people who have accompanied me in conducting this study.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest between the authors.
Authors’ contribution
The ideation, initial writing, and revision of the entire article were with the first author and supervision was with the second author.
Financial support
This study did not receive financial support from any organization.
Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion Regulation and Culture: Are the Social Consequences of Emotion Suppression Culture-Specific? Emotion J, 7, 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30
Butler, E. A. (2011). Three views of emotion regulation and health. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(8), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00372.x
Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Mano, Y., Stein, D. J., Sadato, N., & Iidaka, T. (2021). Culture and emotion. In J. Y. Chiao, S.-C. Li, R. Turner, S. Y. Lee-Tauler, & B. A. Pringle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cultural neuroscience and global mental health (pp. 199–220). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190057695.001.0001.
Ford, B.Q, Mauss, I.B. (2015). Culture and emotion regulation. Curr Opin Psychol. Jun 1;3:1-5. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.004. PMID: 25729757; PMCID: PMC4341898.
Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., & İmamoğlu, A. (2021). Valuing emotional control in social anxiety disorder: A multimethod study of emotion beliefs and emotion regulation. Emotion J, 21(4), 842.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32191093/.
Kim, H. S., & Sasaki, J. Y. (2012). Emotion regulation: The interplay of culture and genes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(12), 865–877. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12003
Kwon, H., Lira Yoon, K., Joormann, J., & Kwon, J-H. (2013). Cultural and Gender Differences in Emotion Regulation: Relation to Depression. Cognition and Emotion J, 27, 769-782. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.792244
Lim N. (2016). Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West. Integr Med Res. Jun;5(2):105-109. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2016.03.004. Epub 2016 Mar 21. PMID: 28462104; PMCID: PMC5381435.
Ma X, Tamir M, Miyamoto Y. A. (2018). socio-cultural instrumental approach to emotion regulation: Culture and the regulation of positive emotions. Emotion J. Feb;18(1):138-152. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000315. Epub 2017 Apr 17. PMID: 28414476.
Miyamoto, Y., Ma, X., & Petermann, A. G. (2014). Cultural differences in hedonic emotion regulation after a negative event. Emotion J, 14(4), 804–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036257
Taylor, S.E., Welch, W.T., Kim, H.S. and Sherman, D.K. (2007) Cultural Differences in the Impact of Social Support on Psychological and Biological Stress Responses. Psychological Science, 18, 831-837. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01987.x
Van Kleef, G. A., & Côté, S. (2022). The social effects of emotions. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 629–658. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-010855
Introduction
Emotions are typically understood as individual experiences arising from the interplay of physiology, cognitive appraisal, and behavior (Butler, 2011; Taylor, & et al., 2007). However, emotional events are inherently embedded within specific social and cultural contexts, and the strategies individuals employ to regulate their emotions are pivotal for successful social navigation. Consequently, the process and outcomes of emotion regulation are heavily contingent upon contextual standards and cultural definitions of appropriate feeling and expression (Butler & et al., 2007). A substantial body of research underscores the profound link between emotion regulation and cultural components (Kwok & et al., 2013; Lim, 2016). As a transdiagnostic construct, emotion regulation is demonstrably culture-dependent; cultures shape norms, values, and beliefs that prescribe specific regulatory strategies, thereby influencing whether such regulation is adaptive or maladaptive within a given society (Ford & Mauss, 2015). Empirical findings indicate that individuals modulate positive and negative emotions—maintaining, enhancing, or reducing them—according to culturally specific beliefs, customs, and values (Miyamoto & Peterman, 2014). Aligning with this, Ford and Mauss (2015) posit that emotion regulation is adaptive when congruent with an individual’s socio-cultural context and maladaptive when incongruent.
Methods
This qualitative study employed a latent content analysis approach. Inductive content analysis aims to organize data, extract meaning, and draw valid inferences from textual materials within their context of use. The target population consisted of active Iranian scholars and practitioners specializing in emotion regulation in 2020. Using purposive sampling, eleven experts were selected based on their scientific, research, and clinical backgrounds in the field. Recruitment and interviewing continued until theoretical data saturation was achieved. Inclusion criteria required a Ph.D. in psychology, a minimum of three years of clinical experience in emotion regulation, and at least one relevant publication within the preceding two years. Exclusion criteria included providing unconvincing or incomplete answers and unwillingness to participate. Ethical protocols were strictly followed, including obtaining written informed consent prior to each interview. Semi-structured interviews, averaging 42 minutes in duration, were conducted with a focus on social factors influencing emotion regulation in Iranian society.
Findings
Interview analysis yielded three main categories and six subcategories related to social factors affecting emotion regulation. The core categories are: (1) Social Interactions, encompassing the subcategories of effective social relationships and the expectations of others; (2) Social Norms of Emotional Expression, comprising emotion facilitators and emotion inhibitors; and (3) Gender Stereotypes in Emotion Regulation, involving gender-related taboos and the demarcation of gender-appropriate emotions.
Discussion
This study qualitatively explored experts’ perspectives on social factors related to emotion and its regulation. The findings reveal that diverse social factors significantly shape emotional expression and regulatory strategies. Qualitative analysis indicates that social interactions directly and indirectly influence the regulation of a wide range of emotions (e.g., anger, happiness, fear). The behavior and expectations of others in daily relationships play a critical role in shaping individuals’ regulatory approaches. This aligns with the fundamental human need for social connection, wherein relationships can either foster psychological health or, through inappropriate expectations, contribute to psychological distress. This finding resonates with research by Chiao et al. (2021) and Ma and et al. (2018).
The results further demonstrate that social norms exert a powerful influence on how emotions are expressed and regulated. Emotional behavior is expected to conform to societal prescriptions; deviations are often deemed undesirable or reprehensible. Crucially, not all norms exert uniform influence; some facilitate emotional expression while others inhibit it. This observation is supported by Van Kleef and Côté (2022), who assert that societal rules profoundly shape individual emotions. Similarly, research by Goodman and et al. (2021) on emotional control in social anxiety disorders highlights the role of personal beliefs and social rules, providing parallel evidence consistent with the present findings.
Ethical considerations
This article has been approved with the ethics code IR.MODARES.REC.1399.148. Also, in this study, an attempt has been made to observe all the criteria of research methodology and research ethics. Finally, we are deeply grateful to all the people who have accompanied me in conducting this study.
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest between the authors.
Authors’ contribution
The ideation, initial writing, and revision of the entire article were with the first author and supervision was with the second author.
Financial support
This study did not receive financial support from any organization.
Butler, E. A., Lee, T. L., & Gross, J. J. (2007). Emotion Regulation and Culture: Are the Social Consequences of Emotion Suppression Culture-Specific? Emotion J, 7, 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/1528-3542.7.1.30
Butler, E. A. (2011). Three views of emotion regulation and health. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(8), 563–577. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2011.00372.x
Chiao, J. Y., Harada, T., Mano, Y., Stein, D. J., Sadato, N., & Iidaka, T. (2021). Culture and emotion. In J. Y. Chiao, S.-C. Li, R. Turner, S. Y. Lee-Tauler, & B. A. Pringle (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of cultural neuroscience and global mental health (pp. 199–220). https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190057695.001.0001.
Ford, B.Q, Mauss, I.B. (2015). Culture and emotion regulation. Curr Opin Psychol. Jun 1;3:1-5. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2014.12.004. PMID: 25729757; PMCID: PMC4341898.
Goodman, F. R., Kashdan, T. B., & İmamoğlu, A. (2021). Valuing emotional control in social anxiety disorder: A multimethod study of emotion beliefs and emotion regulation. Emotion J, 21(4), 842.https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32191093/.
Kim, H. S., & Sasaki, J. Y. (2012). Emotion regulation: The interplay of culture and genes. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 6(12), 865–877. https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12003
Kwon, H., Lira Yoon, K., Joormann, J., & Kwon, J-H. (2013). Cultural and Gender Differences in Emotion Regulation: Relation to Depression. Cognition and Emotion J, 27, 769-782. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2013.792244
Lim N. (2016). Cultural differences in emotion: differences in emotional arousal level between the East and the West. Integr Med Res. Jun;5(2):105-109. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.imr.2016.03.004. Epub 2016 Mar 21. PMID: 28462104; PMCID: PMC5381435.
Ma X, Tamir M, Miyamoto Y. A. (2018). socio-cultural instrumental approach to emotion regulation: Culture and the regulation of positive emotions. Emotion J. Feb;18(1):138-152. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1037/emo0000315. Epub 2017 Apr 17. PMID: 28414476.
Miyamoto, Y., Ma, X., & Petermann, A. G. (2014). Cultural differences in hedonic emotion regulation after a negative event. Emotion J, 14(4), 804–815. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036257
Taylor, S.E., Welch, W.T., Kim, H.S. and Sherman, D.K. (2007) Cultural Differences in the Impact of Social Support on Psychological and Biological Stress Responses. Psychological Science, 18, 831-837. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2007.01987.x
Van Kleef, G. A., & Côté, S. (2022). The social effects of emotions. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 629–658. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-020821-010855
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Received: 2025/03/6 | Accepted: 2025/11/3 | Published: 2026/01/27
Received: 2025/03/6 | Accepted: 2025/11/3 | Published: 2026/01/27
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